Digestion Videos

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=61Yc709hWts

Protein Synthesis

Protein Synthesis is broken up into two stages: Transcription and Translation. Transcription happens when the DNA is unwinded and unzipped by the enzyme Helicase. Helicase travels up the middle of the DNA and splits the hydrogen bonds that hold the bases together. Next what happens is called complimentary base pairing. This is when one strand of DNA is paired up with its complimentary bases. Once that is done, a new sugar phosphate backbone is created. Finally the DNA will zip itself back up and a new mRNA strand is formed. The next step is Translation. This is when a ribosome attaches to the mRNA strand. The appropriate molecule of tRNA attaches and carries the activated amino acid to the ribosome. Anticodon bases pair with the codons in order to bring the specific amino acid to the correct place. The process repeats itself until the entire message is read and all the amino acids are brought in sequence, forming a polypeptide chain.

mRNA is coded by obtaining the codons for DNA. This is by taking the opposite bases from the sequence of DNA it is being coded by. The Thymine from the DNA is replaced by Uracil in the mRNA sequence. Using the mRNA sequence found, we can then figure out which amino acid goes where.

Mutagens such as X-Rays, Gamma Rays, Ultraviolet Rays, Chemicals and Viruses can all effect protein synthesis in a significant way. They can cause deletion and addition as well as substitution which all negatively effect us. Addition will add an extra base and screw up all of the amino acids after the addition has taken place. The same kind of situation will happen with deletion. After one base is taken out, all of the other amino acids will be incorrect. Substitution is not quite as serious as it will only mess up the one amino acid for the base it replaced. Mutations like these can cause Autism, Downs Syndrome, and other mental illnesses.

Biological Molecules

Dehydration synthesis is the process of monomers being joined together. These chains of monomers are called polymers. Hydrolysis is the breaking of these polymers into units. This is done by adding water to polymer. The monomers are the building blocks of the cell. The monomer of sugars has a polymer of Polysaccharides, the monomers Fatty Acids have a polymer of Fats/Lipids/Membranes, the monomer of Amino Acids have a polymer of proteins, and the monomer of Nucleotides have a polymer of Nucleic Acids.

The function of a carbohydrate is to create energy. When the bonds between the carbon atoms break, the energy release is then used by the cell. A carbohydrate can be three different things. A monosaccharide, a disaccharide, or a polysaccharide. A monosaccharide is a single sugar. A disaccharide is when two sugars are bonded together via dehydration synthesis. A polysaccharide is when many different sugars bond together. Four types of polysaccharides exist: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, and chitin.

Lipids are large molecules that are considered to be insoluable. One type of lipid is neutral fats (aka) Triglycerdies. Triglycerides are made up of three fatty acids bonded together by one glycerol. There are two types of Triglycerides: Saturated, and unsaturated fats. Saturated fats are Triglycerides with no double bonds in the carbon chains of fatty acids. These are the unhealthy fats you always hear about. They mostly come from animals, and are solid at room temperature. Some examples of saturated fats are lard, cheese, and other animal fats. Unsaturated fats are a different story. They do have one or more double bonds between the carbons. These fats usually come from plants and are liquid at room temperature. Some examples of unsaturated fats are olive oil, corn oil, and palm oil.

Phospholipids are created when the third fatty acid group of a Triglyceride is replaced by an inorganic phosphate group. Phospholipids make up the two layered cell membrane of all cells. Steroids are made up of a four carbon ring molecules fused together. Steroids can be used for things such as sex hormones.

The main functions of Lipids are long term storage of energy, insulation and protection, makes some hormones, and is the structure of the cell membrane. If we did not have Lipids, we would have no cells.

Proteins are what makes up approximately 40% of the average human body. They are made up of three parts: The amino group, carboxyl group,  and the R group. There are four different levels of protein structure: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary. In Primary level the order of amino acids are joined by polypeptide bonds. In the Secondary level the carboxyl group and the amino group attract and form a hydrogen bond. This means that the chain will twist into an alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet. In the Tertiary level the protein will twist into a very specific 3D shape. The shape of the protein will dictate what its role will be.

DNA is what makes you the way you are. It holds all of your genetic information. DNA has four nitrogen bases that are split into two categories. Purines have two rings, are found in both DNA and RNA, and are what Adenine and Guanine are considered to be. The trick for remembering this is "It's Got 2 Be GAP". Pyrimidines have only one ring and are what Cytosin, Thymine and in some cases Uracil when it is present.
DNA and RNA are structured very differently. RNA has Ribose instead of Deoxyribose, it has no Thymines and uses Uracil instead, and it is only single strands so there is no helix formed. RNA's sole purpose is to assist DNA.

ATP has the same structure as a nucleotide except for the fact that it has three phosphate groups instead of one. This is why it is considered a nucleic acid. ATP is known as the energy source for the body. Why is this? Because it takes a large amount of energy to put two phosphate molecules together and when the bond is broken, much of that energy is released.

DNA Replication

DNA Replication occurs when a cell needs to make a copy of itself to produce more of a certain protein. When the body runs low on any one type of protein, the DNA that codes for that protein will replicate itself in order to rapidly produce more of that single protein until it is no longer needed. This is done in three basic steps. First of all, the DNA will unwind itself and proceed to unzip itself. This occurs with the help of the enzyme Helicase. Helicase will move along the nitrogen bases, slicing the Hydrogen bonds that hold them together apart. Next, complementary base pairing comes into play. This happens when the enzyme DNA Polymerase moves along each single strand of DNA, forming a new backbone for each strand of DNA. Finally, the completely new sets of DNA will wind back up and become a double helix.

Cell Presentation Blog

My favorite presentation was Dan Becker and Justin Smithman's presentation. They had a lot of information about each cell and they went into detail about how they were similar and different. I learned a lot about egg and sperm cells!
1. The red blood cell starts with a nucleus and then gets rid of it.
2. There are 5 types of white blood cells.
3. White blood cells have a golgi body.

 In preparation, we spent most of our time researching and getting information about our cells. I tried to get as much valid information as possible. A lot of my time was also spent checking to see if my information was correct because I had found many different explanations of the cardiac muscle cells. I wish that we would have chosen two cells that were more directly related to each other. We had picked two random cells and found connection between them afterwards (Which is why the comparison of the two cells was pretty much none existent). I do feel that we did explain our cells well and that people had learned something from our project. I learned that we definitely should have picked different cells. 

Acids and Bases

Acids and Bases are extremely important in living organisms. An organism (such as humans) must keep a balanced pH (from 6-8) to remain at a constant state of normalcy.
Acids:
-Acids have a pH value of 0-6.9.
-They contribute H+ ions into a solution.
-Acids turn litmus paper red.
-They conduct electricity.
-Acids are corrosive.

Bases:
-Bases have a pH value of 7.1-14.
-Bases remove H+ ions from a solution.
-Slippery.
-Bases are caustic.

Acids in water:
H2O + HCI --------> H2O + H+ + Cl-

Bases in water:
H2O + NaOH ---------> H2O + Na+ + OH-

Acids and Bases react very differently when put into a solution. Let's say that you have a glass of water that is half filled with water. If you put an acid into that water, the pH value will lower. The more acidic a solution is, the lower the pH value will be. An example of an acid is vinegar. Now if you take that same cup of water and add a Base to it, the pH value will begin to shoot up! This is because the acids in the water are being canceled out by the bases. Eventually, if you add enough base, you will be able to make the water completely neutral. Of course, if you add more base to the solution, it will become a very basic solution. An example of a basic solution is soap.

Buffers can absorb acidic and basic solutions to a certain extent. This is one of the ways our body and the bodies of other living things remain at a constant state of normalcy. Having our bodies at a too acidic or too basic pH level can be dangerous. It can throw off the balance our body has tried so hard to maintain.

Water

One unique characteristic of water is its ability to break down many materials. It does this by pulling apart the different materials. The water molecules will surround these materials and create a bubble to prevent the materials from finding each other again. When all the materials are secluded, whatever was in the water is fully dissolved.

The polarity of water results in hydrogen bonding between two water molecules. This is because each end of a water molecule has a different charge. The oxygen end has a more or less negative charge, while the two hydrogen's have more of a positive charge. This is why water is able to form hydrogen bonds. The ends of two different water molecules will attract to each other (seeing as opposites attract) and will want to stick around one another. They form the hydrogen bond so they will be much harder to separate.

Water is also used as a solvent, temperature regulator, and a lubricant. Let me explain. Water is a good solvent because it is able to pull away molecules from a solution and surround it entirely. This is why water is able to dilute so many different solutions. Water is a good temperature regulator because of how stable it is. Water has a stability range of 0(degrees) to 100(degrees). Water is incredibly resistant to temperature change. Finally, water is a great lubricant. This is because water disrupts friction. This allows whatever object is moving will be able to do so with great ease.

The Cell and its Organelles

I know and can describe many, if not all of the organelles and their functions. I know that the Nucleolus is the dark stained area in the center of the Nucleus. The Nucleolus is in charge of creating new Ribosomes for the cell. I know that the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum is in charge of making Lipids and Steroids. It will also detoxify harmful material and waste products.

I also know how some cell organelles work together with one another. I know that Ribosomes will make proteins that are carried by the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum. The type of protein the Ribosomes make is decided by the Nucleolus.

I would also be able to tell what cell organelle I am looking at if I was shown a picture.

Homeostasis

I know the basics of Homeostasis so far. This includes what negative and positive feedback does in your body. I also know what Homeostasis actually means and does.
Homeo = The same
Stasis = To stay
Homeostasis is what your body does to keep you normal.
Homeostasis begins with a stimulus. This can be something such as a person getting too hot.
This is when the Receptor comes into play. The receptor will let your body know that something is wrong.
The Regulatory Center will then tell the Effector to make your body sweat.
The Response is that your body will sweat. This cools your body and lowers your overall body temperature. After you are cool enough, you will stop sweating and gain Normalcy.

I did not have a phone to take a picture of my poster so I grabbed this from the internet.